Advertising Makes You Buy Things You Dont Want or Need

Company / Organisation | Executive Summary of Marketing Campaign | Wants or Needs? | Figure No’s:| Result| Reference| Halifax – ‘Taking on the high street banks by communicating like a high street retailer’. | Halifax transformed from ‘being a building society’ to an aggressive competitor of the big four banks in just 12 months. Halifax believed that focusing their company as a ‘human’ organisation was a powerful platform. From this they combined ‘human’ and ‘value’ as key points. They branded their service as ‘Extra Value.Extra Friendly’. | No one wanted to use Halifax’s current accounts as they weren’t a recognised bank, and seemed risky for consumers to invest in. What Halifax bank had to offer wasn’t actually that much better than any of the other major banks. | | * 150% increase in Sales * 43% increase in profit per current account customer| Marco Rimmi, Advertising W orks 12, (World Advertising Research Centre, Oxfordshire, 2003)| Skoda – ‘It’s a Skoda. Honest’: the profitable return on brave communication. ‘Skoda Jokes’ were so entwined in British Culture that, despite the brands acquisition by VW in 1992, radical product improvements had continued to fall on deaf ears. In other words people were aware of the improvements and consequently didn’t buy. The repositioning that accompanied the launch of the Fabia in March 2000 challenged Skoda’s prejudice. | We can eliminate most variables that would give consumers a reason to buy the car – meaning that it was advertising that made people buy the car (not other factors). * Price: ‘Byers’ report, showed a sharp deflation in the car market price.Skoda were an exception – the average price for a Skoda was 60% higher than 97. * Distribution: No changes in numbers, share or quality. * Fleet Marketing: * Product:| | * 64% inc rease in Sales * The marketing expenditure was ? 14m, and it was estimated to have returned ? 37m of profits. | Marco Rimmi, Advertising Works 12, (World Advertising Research Centre, Oxfordshire, 2003)| Bakers Complete – ‘From underdog to top dog’| As a complete dry dog Food specialist, Bakers strategy was to steal market share from ‘canned dog foods’.In 1995 Bakers complete was relaunched with revised packaging, a revised formula and a new communication campaign. The target was housewives aged 25 -45, with children. The agency built on the emotional nature of the owner/dog relationship. The agency targeted ‘best friend’ with a campaign based on Pippin the brand ‘spokesdog’. | Research showed that many Dog owners actually felt that dry dog food was not as good as canned meat. Despite this sales actually rose (successful advertising).Not only were Bakers complete competing against canned food business’s but Dry Dog foo d producers too. So nobody ‘needed’ to buy Bakers food because they had many alternative buys. | | * 62. 5% increase in sales value * Sales Doubled after Two Years. The brand had continued to show strong growth ever since. | Marco Rimmi, Advertising Works 12, (World Advertising Research Centre, Oxfordshire, 2003)| Benadryl – ‘How the soft sell sold harder’ | At the launch, allergy brand Benadryl had the product advantage of being fast acting then its competitors.Advertising was developed to explain this advantage. After a successful launch the brand suddenly started to decline and growth was negative. Competitors had come into the market with competitive speed claims and similar creative treatments. The decision was taken to launch a variant with a completely different creative treatment. The advertising idea was to ‘criminalise’ the causes of hayfever. | Obviously people who suffer from Hayfever Need treatment to control or prevent the symptoms.However nobody needed or necessarily wanted to buy Benadryl once other businesses began to sell the same product. As there was no product advantage in the market Benadryl’s success was down to their successful marketing campaign. | | * Both tracking data and qualitative data point to the level of consumer involvement in the tone of the advertising or driving the successful sales results * For every ? 1 spent, there was ? 4. 8 in sales returned| Marco Rimmi, Advertising Works 12, (World Advertising Research Centre, Oxfordshire, 2003)| | | | | * | |

Mcdonald’s Green Marketing Strategy

How McDonald’s Change Their Customer Perspective and Increase Their Sales with Green Marketing The green issue has became a global issue since year 1990s, peak in year 2000s. In business, it can drive people perspective to choose which brand was good or bad. McDonald’s probably is one of the company that realize this issue is very important for their business in this century. McDonald’s is the biggest fast food chain in the world with more than 32,000 outlets in 117 countries. The company has employed more than 1. 7 million people. Last year, they’ve made 1. 2 bn out from 6. 1 bn.For years, many critics came up against McDonald’s about how bad they treat world environment and questioning how far they care about people healths, especially on obesity. The most famous â€Å"attack† to this fast food company probably was a documentary film that tells a people who eat Mcdonald’s meals for a month would hasten his death. McDonald’s al so considered to have responbility of 28% waste package (littering) in UK. Public suggested the company to more persuade their customers not to do littering. And also, public critics McDonald’s happy meal which caused early obesity to child.Those critics had succeed to change people perspective, in year 2000, their income declined with some outlets shut as their new record. Started in 2000s, McDonald’s is fighting back, massively and quietly counter the critics with green marketing. It is not only to increase the company sales, but more important to change the way customers think about McDonald’s, their perspective. But how they do it? McDonald’s is not sustainable company from the beginning, they has core DNA to create delicious food, fatty foods, and sugary foods.They must be careful to take an action, the green strategy not only have to change customers willing to buy, but also it could reduce cost and generate more valuable profit. McDonald’s i s aiming to blow up their green with five criteria, there are nutrition and well-being, sustainable supply chain, environmental responbility, employee experience, and community. They started to create a new logo –switching their traditional red background with the deep green one- to promote a eco-friendlier image.McDonald’s has done a lot of things in order to prove their environmental responbility to their customers, especially by reduce the energy they used. In Germany, at less 100 McDonald’s restaurant would use the green logo by the end of year 2009. And also, some restaurant in Great Britain and France would too. They started to use eco-friendly package – 80 percent of their package was made of renewable resources-. They change white napkins with plain brown, which saves 1. 3 million dollars annualy, while reducing energy, woods and water use.In France, some restaurants has made an innovation to use eco-friendly sofware that can reduce electricity us age by 11%. In Sweden, they use CO2 detector in their restaurants to adjust ventilation, which is reduce the usage of electricity by 15% anually. Various anti-littering campaign is spread to many countries, such as Portugal, UK, France, Switzerland, Australia, and others countries. From their menu, they change a bit in the name of their customer health, they reduce French fries size, adding fruits to its food, bring more healthier salad, less sugar drinks and foods, even low fat foods.Moreover, in Germany, there are some restaurants that provide no burgers and sells salad at just 7 euros, they can choose 5 traditional salads and mix it. Another weapons is sells coffee –sustainbly grown coffee and organic milk- with brand McCafe, while they offering low-calorie foods in the other sides. This strategy was made a significant growth, in Germany there are currently 1386 reaturants with 737 integrated McCafe inside, encouraged by a worlwide revenues of 23. 5 billions dollars.They a lso made a contribution to the local communities, all supply of each restaurants is provided by the local farmers in that city, except their global sponsor drinks, Coca-Cola. They also prove that they care about woman livings, 28. 1% of worldwide top management (VP and Ups) are women, while 50% Company Owned Restaurant Managers are women too. The last but not least, more than 30 countries recognises McDonald’s as great place to work. All of green things above was successfully delivered to customers by various medias, it proved by the increasing growth 13% sales in year 2011 from year 2008.And also, the legendary Big Mac sales rose 10 percent last year, helping keep the company stock price to nearly $100 a share. In the other hand, the advertising budget has been estimated to exceed $2 billion. It shows that McDonald’s has successfully came back to winning by counter critics with the right strategic green marketing. They do the strategy without change the â€Å"fastfoo d† image, but they do with showing their will and contribution to the environment. Finally, it can change human perspective and willing to buy with the increasing sales as the success parameter.Sources Birkner, Christine. 2012. McDonald’s Scores Itself on Sustainability: Will Consumers Be ‘Lovin’ It’?. http://www. marketingpower. com/ResourceLibrary/Documents/newsletters/mne/2012/1/mne_mcdonalds_sustainability. pdf. September 3rd 2012. O Brien, Keith. 2012. How McDonald’s Came Back Bigger Than Ever. http://www. nytimes. com/2012/05/06/magazine/how-mcdonalds-came-back-bigger-than-ever. html? _r=1pagewanted=all&&pagewanted=all. September 3rd 2012 Environmental Leader. 2012.McDonald’s Counters Criticism With Green Marketing Effort. http://www. environmentalleader. com/2009/05/19/mcdonalds-serves-up-green-practices/. September 3rd 2012. Salisbury, Peter. 2011. Behind the Brand: McDonald’s. http://www. theecologist. org/green_green_li ving/behind_the_label/941743/behind_the_brand_mcdonalds. html. September 3rd 2012 Laura, Nerdy. 2011. McDonald’s going green – I’m lovin’ it. †¦?. http://businessnerds. wordpress. com/2011/05/29/mcdonald%E2%80%99s-going-green-%E2%80%93-i%E2%80%99m-lovin%E2%80%99-it/. September 3rd 2012.

The Price Of Life Aids

1. This communication piece is presented in the form of a documentary. The documentary is titled â€Å"The price of life† and is part of a series called â€Å"The money programme†. The documentary was aired on BBC2; the reporter was Nils Blyth and was about the aids epidemic in Africa and how their government is not funding treatment for those who suffer from aids. 2. I think the fact that this documentary was aired on BBC2 an educational television channel along with the complexity of some of the wording and terminology in the documentary suggests this article would be aimed at a target audience of professionals, such as people working in the medical profession, people in government and people working in the pharmaceuticals industry. However I think this documentary would also be of interest to anyone who has a general interest in the subject of aids. 3. I think the initial purpose of this documentary is to provide information. The documentary provides information such as the percentage of people infected by aids, medical treatments and other health issues that affect people once infected by the aids virus. This is achieved by shown interviews with different professionals throughout the documentary such as university professor Alan Whiteside, Aids consortium director Morna Cornell and Doctor Sean Drysdale. Another purpose of the documentary I think was to shock people, I think you would have t watch a documentary like this one to get a good insight to the suffering that goes on in Africa due to aids, I for one was very shocked by their living conditions, medical care and their lack of what seemed to me as their understanding of the seriousness of unprotected sex and their risk of contracting the aids virus. 4. I think this documentary achieves the purposes outlined in answer three by the way the reporter Nils Blyth presents the documentary he speaks in a professional manner covering all the issues, he has good eye contact and good body language. Another speaker in the documentary is Busi Chamane where she talks about her own battle with the HIV virus and how it affects her and her daughter's everyday life, listening to Busi gives you a personal insight of an aids sufferer. 5. This documentary is about aids in Africa and the struggle the people have to receive any sort of medical treatment. The documentary shows a woman Busi Chamane an HIV sufferer and talks a bit about her experience coping with aids. Busi was infected with the HIV virus by her husband who worked away from home, Busi's husband left her and her children and sold their home; Busi was then sacked from her job due to being HIV positive and was also throwing out by her family. On top of this the biggest fear Busi was going through was that her daughter who was born after Busi was infected would also be infected with the HIV virus but after months of tests her daughter was giving the all clear. The documentary also touches upon the issue of government funding for medical treatment for those who suffer from the virus. British made drug AZT (Glaxxo Welcome) is a drug that can prevent the virus being passed from mother to child and is being offered to Africa at a cut price 75% but the African Government say they wont bulk buy as they have doubts in regards to the price, safety and effectiveness. The documentary also films the workers of the platinum mines where hundreds of men work they all live around the mines sharing hostels and are away from their wives and families all year only returning home once. The mines are surrounded by shanty towns and prostitutes who have contributed to 45% of the miners carrying the HIV virus and taken it home to their wives. 6. Busi Chamane showed a few different feelings and emotions throughout the documentary at the start of the documentary you see Busi looking happy and singing at church but throughout the documentary her feeling about being infected with the HIV virus become more apparent. Busi said when she first found out she was infected she was was angry, scared and in denial and also feared for her daughters health. Throughout the time Busi has been infected she has managed to come to terms with her virus and is determined to make the most of the rest of her life, however she still shows anger towards the government and the drugs companies who appear to have the attitude that profits are more important than life. 7. I think this documentary has been very effective in achieving the purposes outlined in question three, it achieves this by the good communication, body language, eye contact, good vocabulary. It films people in their homes, out in their community and in the hospitals where you see one patient dying surrounded by family and friends singing and praying around her bedside. It also achieves the purpose of giving information by talking to professionals i.e. medical, government, university professors and people working for the aids consortiums. It shows good footage of the miners drinking and mixing with prostitutes and also talks to a girl who worked as a prostitute who is now campaigning for safer sex in order to help stop the aids epidemic from rising further.

The evolution of Renaissance architecture between Palazzo and Villa Research Paper

The evolution of Renaissance architecture between Palazzo and Villa - Research Paper Example The Evolution of Renaissance Architecture between Palazzo and Villa: An Analysis between Palazzo Farnese (Rome) and Villa Farnesina (Trastevere) Royal Palaces, magnificent monuments have been built in ancient civilizations all over the world and thus they have been an inseparable part of any culture. They are the evidence of the glorious past of that respective culture. Palaces and monuments play a vital role in conveying the historical and political information of the region. They also depict the story of contemporary social, economic and religious system and focus on the social strata.They are also used to reinforce the primacy of contemporary political power. While describing the role of the palaces, Jessica Joyce Christie, Patricia Joan Sarro state, ' Palaces are more than just residence of the highest – ranking nobles. What distinguishes palaces from the elite residence is the symbolic function of palaces as political statements within their respective societies.' They fu rther state, ‘Palace architecture, including layout, position, and decoration of the palaces as well as their public (or sometimes exclusive) nature, reflects the structure of the political system in which the palaces exist.' The palaces and monuments are either monarchical or built by the elite class. The fundamental objective behind this architecture was to show off the social status of the family, the political power they gained, and their affluence. The palaces and fine architectural buildings are the status issue of the affluent people. Monuments and palaces are always built so that the common people should feel respect, fear about the might dynasty. They are like a strong social, economic and political fortifications built around noblemen and the influential people of the respective era. Because of the palaces and lavish architectural buildings, the bridge between affluent people and common people remain intact. Thus they preserve their social status. The palaces and vil las, built with extraordinary architectural structure, create a sense of pride for the possessor and envy to their rivals. Behind the constructions of almost all the monuments, the social, economical and political factors are majorly involved. These factors were involved in building and designing the two magnificent palaces in Renaissance period in Rome. They were Palazzo Farnese and Villa Farnesina. Keywords: Palazzo Farnese. Villa Farnesina, political, economic and social forces A thorough study of architecture gives a new insight to the cultural, political, economic and social study of the contemporary period, in which the architecture emerges. The style of architecture depicts the political transformations of the region. It narrates the story of economic and social transition. The style and design represent the money spent on building the monument, palace or any architecture. During the excavation process, the entire civilization can be explored with the help of the then excavat ed architecture and the best examples are the amazing architecture of the township of Indus civilization. The Egyptian Pyramids and palaces also represent the socio-eco-political forces. Through the architectural structure of Hawa Mahal in Jaipur in India for example, one can understand what political, economic and social purposes might have influenced the architecture. Hawa Mahal is an exquisite blend of Hindu and Muslim Architecture. It means that the political and social scenario was influenced by two of these dominating religions and there was a rivalry and fierce competition (sometime hatred) between the two religions. The blended architecture further reveals the story of the efforts of Hindu and Muslim kings to preserve their identity. Taj Mahal, one of the finest architectures of the world, depicts the exorbitant wealth and the absolute monarchical power of Emperor Shaha Jahaan and the entire Mughal Empire. Though the style, design of the Eastern architecture is different fro m that of Western Architecture, the political, econom

Why the musliem girls wear scarf Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Why the musliem girls wear scarf - Essay Example Similarly, there are many cultural, religious, and personal reasons that make a Muslim girl wear a hijab. There are different types of headscarves in the Islamic culture. Hijab is the general word used to refer to the headscarf, veil, or the verb to cover (Aldridge 15). It also describes a veil that covers the neck and the hair but leaves the face open. The Niqab veils the head and the face leaving the eyes uncovered and is adorned alongside an abaya, which is a loose black garment, the covers from the head to the feet. The Burka is a veil that covers up the woman’s body as a whole including the eyes; one sees through a grille or mesh window put across the face (Aldridge 15). The Dupatta is a commonly used by people in south Asia (Aldridge 16). Is consists of a long loose scarf draping across the head and shoulders worn with other matching clothes. Finally, the chador is common among Iranian women. It is full length cloak which covers the woman’s head and body and is held closed at its front by the woman’s hands (Aldridge 17). Religion is the main reason cited as a reason for Muslim girls wearing a hijab. The Quran talks extensively about the requirement of a woman to wear a headscarf. In Surah 24 verses 30 t0 31, Prophet Muhammad informs women that God ordered them to wear a headscarf. The message is similar in Surah 33 verse 59 (Rodwell 86). According to the Quran, Muhammad says that a veil maintains a woman modesty, which is God’s, will. The main argument against the veil is that modesty can be upheld in many different ways. For some people modesty entails wearing loose clothing, which does not enhance or flaunt their body parts. In other people’s opinion, modesty simply entails not wearing skirts that are above the knees or clothes that show ones belly button. People that question wearing the hijab based on the definition of modesty need to realize that the Quran provides and

LT1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

LT1 - Essay Example Those species who exhibit nature friendly characters and inherit from one generation to another generation would be successfully accepted by the nature. Hence he emphasizes the necessity of maintaining the environmental ethics in the process of modern development. Some environmental theories deliberated the importance of ecology, suitable acquired characters, quantum theory, and big-bang cosmology. Law of acquired characters as proposed by Lamarck explains the importance of possessing some desirable characters which would help the organisms to survive well with the changes in the nature or environment. In the present day context, the environmental ethics have to be made compulsory for implementation especially in developed nations or northern countries. Some theories suggest that higher coordination is called for between the developed and developing nations as the major forest area is present in developing countries where as higher capital bearing ability is the strength of developed nations. At the same time, the environmental ethical theories must strike a balance between the concepts of anthropocentrism and non-anthropocentrism. Over a period of time, the inclination of human beings towards handling the environment witnessed a tremendous change. As the technological advances resulted in higher mechanization and industrialization, the environmental safety has been severely neglected. In other words, the human ethics towards environment have undergone a significant variation in the last two centuries. Let us compare and contrast the varying ethics of human beings with a single perspective like forest conservation. In the ancient period, the human beings maintained very strong environmental ethics as they lived closely with the nature and they even worshipped Gods representing nature. They maintained strong affinity with other animals and plants. However, with the invention of

During the 20th century, african americans Civil Rights received Essay

During the 20th century, african americans Civil Rights received profound social and cultural change - Essay Example Revolution and other forceful approaches were the best options for the black Americans to express their plights. In 1956, Martin Luther King Jr. confronted methodological and ideological challenges through advocacy and Civil Rights Movements. The challenges focused on philosophical key tenets that formed the basis of Civil Rights Movement. The first sentiments promoted by the advocates of black power were integration and non-violence. Various SNCC’s and CORE’s black activists advocated re-evaluation of the influence created by civil rights proponents. White advisors as murders of black workers took place without being noticed (Ongiri 102). Ideologies of black activists and tenets of Black Power ideologies prompted a new sense of pride and identity. Consequently, black Americans insisted that America refer to them as Afro-Americans, not as Negroes. Further, in 1960’s, black Americans boasted of the privilege of adopting a similar dressing code to that of white Americans. The 1963 match to Washington was iconic in the history of advocacy for human rights in America. Organizers from Greenwood Mississippi, Willie Ricks, who swore to enhance Black Power ideologies to a different level in 1966. Ricks instituted, among blacks, the spirit of getting armed and ready for confrontations against white supremacists such as the Ku Klux Klan. As a result, black Americans armed themselves against the Ku Klux Klan armed terrorists and prepared for the worst including death. Finally, the activities of Klan within the community ceased. In 1966, the existence of Black Panther was a notable influence that prompted reforms. It informed Black Power ideologies and best practices about their broadest public platforms. The Black Panthers advocated through all necessary principles to eliminate and eradicate racial inequality that existed between black and white Americans. Police brutality against black neighborhoods reduced. Leather jackets, light blue shirts, and black power

Should companies lease or buy computer equipment today What kinds of Assignment

Should companies lease or buy computer equipment today What kinds of questions should companies ask themselves when making a de - Assignment Example As the need for accessibility and a wider geographical coverage has been inevitable, it is necessary that there are means of enabling the department attain this requirement. Sales cars are the best ways of ensuring that the organization’s dedicated salesmen or women are able to promptly and appropriately respond to individual customer needs. Since public means is a relatively cheaper but expensive for competition of the organization, there is a practice in the industry that has seen major organizations acquire their own fleet for the purposes of overcoming the challenges of public transport. Apart from affording the salesmen and women the luxury of being flexible and comfortable while performing their duty to the organization, cars owned by the organization are also the best means of ensuring that coordination and monitoring is enhanced in the department. For instance, a good fleet should provide means of tracking locations of different customers across the identified geograph ical segments. In this way, mapping out the target market will be possible and hence easy scheduling and management of issues like delivery and rapid response. On the other hand, the sales department and the organization is able to benefit from the fleet management capabilities provided and therefore hold each sales team accountable. A price cap of $20,000 for each unit has been established for this program. To enable the organization make the most appropriate purchase as per the requirements of the sales staff, several cars will be compared under specified criteria. The remainder of this document contains the following sections: . The Criteria Used to evaluate the sales cars . Car Evaluation . Final Recommendation The Criteria Used To Evaluate the Sales Cars The purpose of this section is to state the requisite specifications that each car should meet as required by majority of sales staff. By identifying the requirements for the ideal car, it will be easy to guide the proposed pur chase program to the most suitable and viable option in the list of the available car choices in the market. The criteria are: Financial viability The number of doors Originality of the car Fuel economy Warranty period Additional benefits Financial viability The chosen car for the sales team must not exceed the sum of $20,000 in total costs of purchase. This implies that regardless of the other requirements that might be fulfilled by other cars, the cost of purchase according to the budget is not to be surpassed. The Number of Doors All the car units need to have four doors. Flexibility of the sales staff is very important in having access to their chosen means of transport. It is also obvious that the number of doors has a direct bearing on the seat capacity and even the storage space in the car. Since the organization is looking to maximize on the available fleet due to limited resources, this criteria is therefore essential for the purposes of the mentioned objective apart from o ther reasons. Boot space is also important for sales staff for delivery purposes. Originality of the Car The vehicles to be purchased must be American-made due to the clientele requirements. The country of manufacture is

Education and Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Education and Society - Essay Example From the discussion it is clear that  functionalism states that every society’s aspect is interdependent and contributes to the functioning of the whole society. The government provides education for the state’s children whereas the same citizens of the state pay tax to keep the government running. According to Emile Dhurkenim, the society is held together by cohesion or social consensus whereby the citizens concur together and work to accomplish the best for the society at- large. This essay will discuss the functionalist perspective of the central government control of curriculum content is schools.According to the report findings  the central government should provide education for the children of the family, which then the citizens pay taxes to sustain the government’s operations. This ensures the family is dependent on the school in assisting the growing up of the children, ensuring good jobs for the children to grow and sustain their own families. Centr al government control of curriculum content in schools means that the government is fully in-charge of developing, facilitating and ensuring that the curriculum it comes up with is taught in the schools. The government comes up with various education policies regarding the curriculum to be taught and enforces the same. Through this direct involvement, the government ensures that it consults all the major stakeholders in the education industry in order to develop the curriculum.   The policy is enforced using various strategies, ensuring the full implementation and evaluation of the curriculum, to check its functionality. All state machinery is put to task ensuring that the curriculum works in accordance to set processes and procedures by the government. This paper discusses the central government functionalist perspective on curriculum content in schools (Bundy and Mathews, 1998, p. 29). According to Durkheim research, he came up with three irrefutable facts to social sciences. Am ong them were the social facts that were underlying the institutions such as the family, state and education. Since all stakeholders were part of the development in the central government controlled curriculum, implementing the curriculum does not become a major challenge. The government values education and it is for the paramount reason that the central government comes up with various funding mechanisms for the curriculum since it understands that a learned population for the country is a key pillar for economical significance and empowerment. The country’s constitution entrenches education as a fundamental right for the people, making it obligatory for the government to, fully control the curriculum to be taught (Turner, 2012, p. 17). Central governments are adequately aware that education is a paramount fundamental right for its citizens and therefore it has the authority and mandate to provide education. The central government thus develops the curriculum. Here the cent ral government controls the educational institutions indirectly. Standardization is the key element of education since the people of that particular country will be taught the same things regardless of personal status. The central government comes with a standard-based curriculum that ensures changes regarding how teachers teach and the way schools are managed. The central gove

Mary Shelley - Frankenstein Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Mary Shelley - Frankenstein - Essay Example Thus, it is evident that the author incorporates in her novel the important factors in the history of Europe such as the effect of French Revolution on notions of class and identity, the role of the Industrial Revolution on the socio-economic life of the people. As Essaka Joshua maintains, the social comment in Frankenstein is especially inspired by the ideology of the French Revolution and the works of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. â€Å"Critics have recently connected Frankenstein with this period of social upheaval, reading the novel as an ‘allegory of the French Revolution, the attempt to recreate man and the disillusionment and terror that followed.† (Joshua, 23) Therefore, it is essential to realize that the historical and political context of the author has played a crucial role in the writing of the novel. This essay offers a reflective exploration of the political and historical backdrop of the period in which Mary Shelly wrote her celebrated novel Frankenstein. Much o f the critical commentary on Mary Shelly’s Frankenstein has focused on the impact of the historical and political context of the novelist on the major themes, and references in the work.

Promote Equality and Inclusion in Children’s and Young People’s Settings Essay Example for Free

Promote Equality and Inclusion in Children’s and Young People’s Settings Essay The importance of diversity in an early years setting is that children need to have their own sense of identity and have a sense of pride in themselves and their cultures. Equality This means to treat everyone fairly and equally. Children should be treated as individuals, equally and fairly. Sometimes treating children equally, you have to treat them differently. All children should be valued for their individuality and offered any support they may need. Everyone should be treated with the care, consideration and respect that they have a right to and given the same opportunities to learn and achieve as others. Inclusion This mean to include everyone and meet the individual’s needs. It is a human right for every individual. Everyone counts and differences should be valued, respected and celebrated. Inclusion involves identifying barriers that prevent people from taking part, being involved and fitting in. Knowledge is needed to understand these barriers which can only then be broken down. It is everyone’s responsibility to remove these barriers. It involves making sure that all support systems are available in order for everyone to participate fully. The importance of having equality and inclusion in a setting is so the child does not have poor self-esteem or lack of respect or confidence. The child should not feel as though they are being stereo-typed which could make the child aggressive towards others and prevent the child from interacting. The child should believe in themselves and behave in accordance with others expectations. Equality Act 2010 is the law which bans unfair treatment and helps achieve equal opportunities in the workplace and in wider society. Participation Every child matters, whether they have a different culture, race, gender or if they have a disability, all children have equality of learning and to participate to allow them to grow and meet their full potential. Discrimination Discrimination is a preconceived attitude towards members of a particular group formed only upon the basis of their membership of that group that leads to less favourable or bad treatment of that person. Discrimination could be direct or indirect. Direct discrimination is when a person is treated differently to other people when they are in the same circumstances and indirect is when discrimination is done un-intently. Potential effects may include: Causing upset Affecting an individual’s self-esteem Causing stress Individuals feeling isolated Affecting individuals’ hopes and expectations Creating tensions Leading to stereotyping Leading to labelling Producing prejudices The types of discrimination are:- Racial discrimination This is a belief that some races are superior then others based on the false idea that skin colour may make people better than others. Institutional racism This describes any kind of system of inequality based on race. It can occur in institutions such as public government bodies, private business corporations and universities. Disability discrimination Disability discrimination is about being denied equality of opportunity with their non-disabled peers because of their disabilities or impairments. Sex Discrimination People of one gender reinforce the stereotype that they are superior to the other gender. Discrimination is generally based on either prejudice or stereotypes. Prejudice means to prejudice people based on assumptions and stereotype refers to forming an instant or fixed picture of a group of people, usually based on false or incomplete information. By being discriminated can cause a lifelong effect on a child. They could feel shy and lack in confidence which can then stop them from fulfilling the full potential.

Final Project 1960 Time Capsule Essay Example for Free

Final Project 1960 Time Capsule Essay After receiving a very intriguing call from my colleagues, about a great time capsule find, I made my immediate departure for a little place we call the Red Zone previously known as Colorado. As I arrive I help my colleagues to unearth a time capsule from the period of the 1960s. We carefully opened the capsule that had intrigued us all so much to find five articles inside that told a great story of our past and of the decade beginning in 1960. The following is a summary of my findings within the capsule. The first of the five articles contained within the capsule was The Berlin Wall of 1961, also known as â€Å"The Iron Curtain†. This wall once more than 30 miles of barbed wire was a barrier between the Communist East Germany and the Democratic West Germany, became a series of concrete walls up to fifteen feet high, 96 miles long and guarded by towers armed with guards. After WWII Germany was split into four zones, three controlled by France, Britain, and The United States, and the other one by The Soviet Union; the Berlin Wall was constructed to separate the zone (East Germany) that was controlled by the Soviet Union from the zones (West Germany) controlled by France, Britain and the United States. It was here at the Berlin Wall that John F. Kennedy gave one of his memorable speeches, â€Å"There are many people in the world who really dont understand, or say they dont, what is the great issue between the free world and the Communist world. Let them come to Berlin. There are some who say that communism is the wave of the future. Let them come to Berlin. And there are some who say in Europe and elsewhere we can work with the Communists. Let them come to Berlin. And there are even a few who say that it is true that communism is an evil system, but it permits us to make economic progress. Lasssie nach Berlin kommen. Let them come to Berlin.† The construction and demolition of the Berlin Wall(1989-90) are important milestones of the Cold War. The second item found in the capsule was the March on Washington of 1963. Attended by some 250,000 people, it was the largest demonstration ever seen in the nation’s capital, and one of the first to have extensive television coverage (Ross, 2007). The stated demands of the march were the passage of meaningful civil rights legislation; the elimination of racial segregation in public schools; protection for demonstrators against police brutality; a major public-works program to provide jobs; the passage of a law prohibiting racial discrimination in public and private hiring; a $2 an hour minimum wage; and self-government for the District of Columbia, which had a black majority (Ross,2007). Demanding jobs and freedom from the nation’s capital this march successfully pressured the Kennedy administration to initiate a civil rights bill in Congress. This is also when Martin Luther King gave his â€Å"I Have a Dream† speech. Although it wasn’t until the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that the demands of the march were met, it was a major point in the peaceful war for civil and equal rights for all Americans. Without this peaceful demonstration the civil rights movement could have been pushed even further back in its effort for an equal nation. The effects of this event can still be seen today as we are now seen as American rather than white and black or rich or poor. The third item discovered in the capsule was the assassination of President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963. On this day President Kennedy accompanied by his wife, John Connelly and his wife Nellie rode in a motorcade through the streets of Dallas, TX. It was during this ride that President Kennedy was shot around 12:30 pm the driver then rushed the President to Memorial Hospital where he was pronounced dead at 1:00pm. This horrible travesty shook America for years to come. News of the assassination changed the source of news from then on. Until this point newspapers had been the main source of news, until the assassination which brought on the longest uninterrupted television broadcast to date. The assassination also stuck fear in the African-Americans that the assassination would put a halt to the progress for civil rights. However, the assassination seemed to spur the civil rights movement which resulted in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 signed by President Lyndon Johnson. The assassination also changed the way the secret service operates today. Although during those times the President  was freer to move around openly, now secret service agents keep the president more secure and his availability limited. It is also thought that had the president not been assassinated the Vietnam War would have ended and many of our troops would not have died. The assassination opens up the possibility of â€Å"what if?†, and fueled conspiracy theorist for many, many years to come. This showed the weakness of American by its own hand. The fourth item in the capsule was the moon landing in 1969. July 16, 9:32am three astronauts (Neil Armstong, Buzz Aldridge, and Michael Collins) sit waiting for launch permission. By 9:44am they are in Earth orbit, July 20 at 10:56pm Neil Armstrong takes his first step on the moon. With more than half a billion people watching on television, he climbs down the ladder and proclaims: Thats one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. (htt5). This was proof of great technological advancement and completion of the challenge set forth by President Kennedy over nine years ago. Project Apollo took on a life of its own over the years and left an important legacy to both the nation and the proponents of space exploration. Its success was enormously significant, coming at a time when American society was in crisis (htt6). This event showed the world and Americans everywhere that The United States was still the ultimate power by demonstrating to the world what the United States could achieve. The moon landing changed the way we viewed the Earth as they pointed a small portable camera toward Earth, showing just how small and fragile the planet really is in the scheme of the universe. The samples taken and brought back from the moon landing opened up knew scientific testing and led the way to multiple other moon landings and advancing our knowledge of space itself. The last item in the intriguing capsule was the Woodstock Music Festival of 1969. This was a three day concert at Max Yasgur’s dairy farm in the town of Bethel. More than half a million people came together united in a message of peace, openness and cultural expression – and demonstrated how a generation could be heard (htt7) Woodstock is committed to living by its principles – we believe in universal human rights, ethical business practices, unfettered creative expression, free trade, the loving care of our planet, the power of the individual to make a difference, and the  overwhelming impact of communities to act as agents of peaceful change (htt7). However, the festival involved music (rock ‘n roll), drugs, sex and nudity. This festival came at a time when American had been through hard times. With the Civil Rights Movement, the Vietnam War, and the assassination of Martin Luther King the United States was tired and weary. The peaceful concert changed the way music was marketed from then on, now knowing that fans were willing to give up popular amenities to have sight of the musicians they loved. The change on music and pop culture of the time was historic. In 1969, rock critic Ellen Sander appraised the immediate impact of the Festival this way: No longer can the magical multicolored phenomenon of pop culture be overlooked or underrated. It’s happening everywhere, but now it has happened in one place at one time so hugely that it was indeed historic . The audience was a much bigger story than the groups. It was major entertainment news that the line-up of talent was of such magnificence and magnitude (thirty-one acts, nineteen of which were colossal) . These were, however, the least significant events of what happened over the Woodstock weekend. What happened was that the largest number of people ever assembled for any event other than a war lived together, intimately and meaningfully and with such natural good cheer that they turned on not only everyone surrounding them but the mass media, and, by extension, millions of others, young and old, particularly many elements hostile to the manifestations and ignorant of the substance of pop culture. (htt8). This change in pop culture has left an undying footprint on the history of the world with its new found music, art and literary styles. It is clear after examining and researching the incredible articles within the time capsule that the 1960 era was an extreme time of change for the American people. This decade in our history so full of such life changing events not only in the United States but also in other countries that rely on support from the United States. Its story shows our ability to adapt to ever changing situations around us and the resilience of the American people. Whether it is fighting Communism, the loss of a great leader, fighting for our rights, landing on the moon, or expressing or freedom in culture we are a strong nation and when faced with a great challenge we answer that challenge with a great success. Although many have been lost  along the way as a whole we stand one nation, united. References (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.tenfactsabout.co.uk/0003berlinwall.htm (n.d.). Retrieved from http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/encyclopedia/encyclopedia/enc_march_on_washington_for_jobs_and_freedom/ (n.d.). Retrieved from Civil Rights March on Washington (History, Facts, Martin Luther King Jr.) | Infoplease.com. Infoplease. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/19/john-f-kennedy-assassination-racial-equality-jfk (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo11_40th.html (n.d.). Retrieved from http://history.nasa.gov/ap11-35ann/legacy.html (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.woodstock.com/ (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.woodstockpreservation.org/SignificanceStatement.htm http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1867.html. (n.d.).

Importance Of Time In Distributed Systems

Importance Of Time In Distributed Systems Time is an important and interesting issue in Distributed Systems for several reasons. First, time is a quantity we always want to measure accurately. In order to know at what time of day a particular event occurred at a particular computer, it is necessary to synchronize its clock with an authoritative, external source of time. Second, algorithms that depend upon clock synchronization have been developed for several problems in distribution; these include maintaining the consistency of distributed data, checking the authenticity of a request sent to a server and eliminating the processing of duplicate updates [1] In Centralized systems, there is no need for clock synchronization because, generally, there is only a single clock. A process gets the time by simply issuing a system call to the kernel. When another process after that tries to get the time, it will get a higher time value. Thus, in such systems, there is a clear ordering of events and there is no ambiguity about the times at which these events occur. [4] In Distributed systems, there is no global clock or common memory. Each processor has its own internal clock and its own notion of time. In practice, these clocks can easily drift apart by several seconds per day, accumulating significant errors over time. Also, because different clocks tick at different rates, they may not remain always synchronized although they might be synchronized when they start. This clearly poses serious problems to applications that depend on a synchronized notion of time. Distributed systems are subject to timing uncertainties as certain processes may lack a common notion of real time. Due to an uncertainty in message delay time, absolute process synchronization is known to be impossible for such systems The literature presents issues of timing in distributed systems, physical clocks and their synchronization problems, algorithms for synchronizing physical clocks are presented with their limitations, and also techniques for implementing logical clocks which are used to monitor the order of events without measuring the physical time at which the events occurred The concept of time Let us begin by asking this simple question; does anybody really know what time it is [3] As Lamport notes, the concept of time is fundamental to our way of thinking [7] In fact, real time helps to master many problems of our decentralized real world. Time is also a useful concept when considering possible causality. Consider a person suspected of a crime, if that person has an alibi because he or she was far enough away from the site of the crime at some instant close enough to the time of the crime, then he or she cannot be the culprit. Timing problems Accurate time is important to determining the order in which events occur; [3] this is a basic standard of transactional integrity, system and networkà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ wide logging, auditing, troubleshooting and forensics. Having an accurate time source plays a critical role in tracing and debugging problems that occur on different platforms across a network. Events must be correlated with each other regardless of where they were generated. Furthermore, the notion of time (or time ranges) is used in many forms of access control, authentication, and encryption. In some cases, these controls can be bypassed or rendered inoperative if the time source could be manipulated. For example, a payroll function could be tricked into providing access over a weekend when normally it would be restricted to normal business hours. [3] Physical clocks Most computers today keep track of the passage of time with a battery-backed up Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) clock circuit, driven by a quartz resonator. This allows the timekeeping to take place even if the machine is powered off. When on, an operating system will generally program a timer circuit (a Programmable Interval Timer, or PIT, in older Intel architectures and Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller, or APIC, in newer systems.) to generate an interrupt periodically (common times are 60 or 100 times per second). The interrupt service procedure simply adds one to a counter in memory. While the best quartz resonators can achieve an accuracy of one second in 10 years, they are sensitive to changes in temperature and acceleration and their resonating frequency can change as they age. Standard resonators are accurate to 6 parts per million at 31 °C, which corresponds to  ±Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ½ second per day. The problem with maintaining a concept of time is when multiple entities expect each other to have the same idea of what the time is. Two watches hardly ever agree. Computers have the same problem: a quartz crystal on one computer will oscillate at a slightly different frequency than on another computer, causing the clocks to tick at different rates. The phenomenon of clocks ticking at different rates, creating an ever widening gap in perceived time is known as clock drift. The difference between two clocks at any point in time is called clock skew and is due to both clock drift and the possibility that the clocks may have been set differently on different machines. The Figure below illustrates this phenomenon with two clocks, A and B, where clock B runs slightly faster than clock A by approximately two seconds per hour. This is the clock drift of B relative to A. At one point in time (five seconds past five oclock according to As clock), the difference in time between the two clocks is approximately four seconds. This is the clock skew at that particular time. Compensating for drift We can envision clock drift graphically by considering true Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) flowing on the x-axis and the corresponding computers clock reading on the y-axis. A perfectly accurate clock will exhibit a slope of one. A faster clock will create a slope greater than unity while a slower clock will create a slope less than unity. Suppose that we have a means of obtaining the true time. One easy (and frequently adopted) solution is to simply update the system time to the true time. To complicate matters, one constraint that well impose is that its not a good idea to set the clock back. The illusion of time moving backwards can confuse message ordering and software development environments. If a clock is fast, it simply has to be made to run slower until it synchronizes. If a clock is slow, the same method can be applied and the clock can be made to run faster until it synchronizes. The operating system can do this by changing the rate at which it requests interrupts. For example, suppose the system requests an interrupt every 17 milliseconds (pseudo-milliseconds, really the computers idea of what a millisecond is) and the clock runs a bit too slowly. The system can request interrupts at a faster rate, say every 16 or 15 milliseconds, until the clock catches up. This adjustment changes the slope of the system time and is known as a linear compensating Function. After the synchronization period is reached, one can choose to resynchronize periodically and/or keep track of these adjustments and apply them continually to get a better running clock. This is analogous to noticing that your watch loses a minute every two months and making a mental note to adjust the clock by that amount every two months (except the system does it continually). Synchronizing physical clocks With physical clocks, our interest is not in advancing them just to ensure proper message ordering, but to have the system clock keep good time. We looked at methods for adjusting the clock to compensate for skew and drift, but it is essential that we get the time first so that we would know what to adjust. One possibility is to attach a GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver to each computer. A GPS receiver will provide time within  ± 1 msec. of UTC time but Unfortunately, they rarely work indoors. Alternatively, if the machine is in the U.S., one can attach a WWV radio receiver to obtain time broadcasts from Texas, Colorado or Washington, DC, giving accuracies of  ± 3-10 msec. depending on the distance from the source. Another option is to obtain a GOES (Geostationary Operational Environment Satellites) receiver, which will provide time within  ± 0.1 msec. of UTC time. For reasons of economy, convenience, and reception, these are not practical solutions for every machine. Most machines will set their time by asking another machine for the time (preferably one with one of the aforementioned time sources). A machine that provides this information is called a time server. Several algorithms have been proposed for synchronizing clocks and they all have the same underlying model of the system Cristians algorithm The simplest algorithm for setting the time would be to simply issue a remote procedure call to a time server and obtain the time. That does not account for the network and processing delay. We can attempt to compensate for this by measuring the time (in local system time) at which the request is sent (T0) and the time at which the response is received (T1). Our best guess at the network delay in each direction is to assume that the delays to and from are symmetric (we have no reason to believe otherwise). The estimated overhead due to the network delay is then (T1- T0)/2. The new time can be set to the time returned by the server plus the time that elapsed since the server generated the timestamp: Suppose that we know the smallest time interval that it could take for a message to be sent between a client and server (either direction). Lets call this time Tmin. This is the time when the network and CPUs are completely unloaded. Knowing this value allows us to place bounds on the accuracy of the result obtained from the server. If we sent a request to the server at time T0, then the earliest time stamp that the server could generate the timestamp is T0 + Tmin. The latest time that the server could generate the timestamp is T1 Tmin, where we assume it took only the minimum time, Tmin, to get the response. The range of these times is: T1 T0 2Tmin, so the accuracy of the result is: Errors are cumulative. If machine A synchronizes from a server B and gets an accuracy of  ±5 msec but server B in turn got its time from server C with an accuracy of  ±7 msec, the net accuracy at machine A is  ±(5+7), or  ±12 msec. Several time requests may be issued consecutively in the hope that one of the requests may be delivered faster than the others (e.g., it may be submitted during a time window when network activity is minimal). This can achieve improved accuracy. Cristians algorithm suffers from the problem that afflicts all single-server algorithms: the server might fail and clock synchronization will be unavailable. It is also subject to malicious interference. Berkeley algorithm The Berkeley algorithm, developed by Gusella and Zatti in 1989 [8], is form of an internal synchronization that does not assume that any machine has an accurate time source with which to synchronize. Instead, it opts for obtaining an average time from the participating computers and synchronizing all machines to that average. The machines involved in the synchronization each run a time dà ¦mon process that is responsible for implementing the protocol. One of these machines is elected (or designated) to be the master. The others are slaves. The server polls each machine periodically, asking it for the time. The time at each machine may be estimated by using Cristians method to account for network delays. When all the results are in, the master computes the average time (including its own time in the calculation). The hope is that the average cancels out the individual clocks tendencies to run fast or slow. Instead of sending the updated time back to the slaves, which would introduce further uncertainty due to network delays, it sends each machine the offset by which its clock needs adjustment. The operation of this algorithm is illustrated in the Figure below. Three machines have times of 3:00, 3:25, and 2:50. The machine with the time of 3:00 is the server (master). It sends out a synchronization query to the other machines in the group. Each of these machines sends a timestamp as a response to the query. The server now averages the three timestamps: the two it received and its own, computing (3:00+3:25+2:50)/3 = 3:05. Now it sends an offset to each machine so that the machines time will be synchronized to the average once the offset is applied. The machine with a time of 3:25 gets sent an offset of -0:20 and the machine with a time of 2:50 gets an offset of +0:15. The server has to adjust its own time by +0:05. The algorithm also has provisions to ignore readings from clocks whose skew is too great. The master may compute a fault-tolerant average averaging values from machines whose clocks have not drifted by more than a certain amount. If the master machine fails, any other slave could be elected to take over Logical clocks Lets again consider cases that involve assigning sequence numbers (timestamps) to events upon which all cooperating processes can agree. What matters in these cases is not the time of day at which the event occurred but that all processes can agree on the order in which related events occur. Our interest is in getting event sequence numbers that make sense system-wide. If we can do this across all events in the system, we have something called total ordering: every event is assigned a unique timestamp (number), every such timestamp is unique. However, we dont always need total ordering. If processes do not interact then we dont care when their events occur. If we only care about assigning timestamps to related (causal) events then we have something known as partial ordering. Leslie Lamport [7] developed a happened before notation to express the relationship between events: aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b means that a happened before b. If a represents the timestamp of a message sent and b is the timestamp of that message being received, then aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b must be true; a message cannot be received before it is sent. This relationship is transitive. If aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b and bà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢c then aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢c. If a and b are events that take place in the same process the aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b is true if a occurs before b. The importance of measuring logical time is in assigning a time value to each event such that everyone will agree on the final order of events. That is, if aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b then clock (a) < clock (b) since the clock (our timestamp generator) must never run backwards. If a and b occur on different Processes that do not exchange messages (even through third parties) then aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b is not true, these events are said to be concurrent: there is no way that a could have influenced b. Each event is assigned a timestamp by its respective process. The process simply maintains a global counter that is incremented before each event gets a timestamp. If we examine the timestamps from our global perspective, we can observe a number of peculiarities. Event g, the event representing the receipt of the message sent by event a, has the exact same timestamp as event a when it clearly had to take place after event a. Event e has an earlier time stamp (1) than the event that sent the message (b, with a timestamp of 2). Lamports algorithm Lamport [7] proposed an algorithm that forces the resequencing of timestamps to ensure that the happened before relationship is properly depicted for events related to sending and receiving messages. It works as follows: Each process has a clock, which can be a simple counter that is incremented for each event. The sending of a message is an event and each message carries with it a timestamp obtained from the current value of the clock at that process (sequence number). The arrival of a message at a process is also an event will also receive a timestamp by the receiving process, of course. The process clock is incremented prior to time stamping the event, as it would be for any other event. If the clock value is less than the timestamp in the received message, the systems clock is adjusted to the (messages timestamp + 1). Otherwise nothing is done. The event is now time stamped. If we apply this algorithm to the same sequence of messages, we can see that proper message ordering among causally related events is now preserved. Note that between every two events, the clock must tick at least once. [4] Lamports algorithm [7] allows us to maintain proper time ordering among causally- related events. In summary, Lamports algorithm requires a monotonically increasing software counter for a clock that has to be incremented at least when events that need to be time stamped take place. These events will have the clock value, or Lamport timestamp, associated with them. For any two events, where aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b, L (a) < L (b) where L(x) represents the Lamport timestamp for event x. Lamport timestamps [7] assure us that if there is a causal relationship between two events, then the earlier event will have a smaller time stamp than the later event. Causality is achieved by successive events on one process or by the sending and receipt of messages on different processes. As defined by the happened-before relationship, causality is transitive. For instance, events a and f are causally related in the figure above (through the sequence a, b, e, f). Implementing Logical clocks To implement logical clocks, [11] each process p, maintains data structures that give it the following two capabilities: A logical clock, denoted by C, that helps P, measure its own progress; and A global logical clock denoted by gC, that represents Ps local view of the global logical time. A protocol is presented to update the data structures; the protocol ensures that a processs logical clock and its view of the global time are consistent. The protocol consists of the following two rules: R1. maintains how a process updates the local logical clock when it executes an Event, whether send or receive R2. maintains how a process updates its global logical clock to update its view of the Global time. It dictates what information about the logical time a process Piggybacks in a message and how the receiving process uses this information to Update its view of the global time A distributed system consisting of logical clocks differ in their representation of logical time and in the protocol for updating logical clocks. However, all systems consisting of logical clocks implements some form of R1 and R2 and thereby achieving the fundamental monotonicity property associated with events and casualty Total ordering of events Note that it is very possible for multiple non-causal (concurrent) events to share identical Lamport timestamps (e.g., c, e, and h in the Figure above). This may cause confusion if multiple processes need to make a decision based on the timestamps of two events. The selection of a specific event may not matter if the events are concurrent but we want all the processes to be able to make the same decision. This is difficult if the timestamps are identical. Fortunately, theres an easy remedy. We can create a total order on events by further qualifying them with identities of processes. We define a global logical timestamp (Ti,i) where Ti represents the local Lamport timestamp and i represents the process ID (in some globally unique way: for example, a concatenation of host address and process ID). We are then able to globally compare these timestamps and conclude that There is no physical significance to the order since process identifiers can be arbitrary and do not relate to event ordering but the ability to ensure that no two Lamport timestamps are the same globally is helpful in algorithms that need to compare these timestamps. In real life, depending on the application, one may use a combination of thread ID, process ID, and IP address as a qualifier to the timestamp. Vector clocks If two events are causally related and event e happened before event e then we know that L (e) < L (e). However, the converse is not necessarily true. With Lamports algorithm, if L (e) < L (e) we cannot conclude that eà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢e. Hence, if we look at Lamport timestamps, we cannot conclude which pairs of events are causally related and which are not. One solution that has been proposed to deal with this problem is the concept of vector clocks (proposed by Mattern in 1989 and Fidge in 1991) [9, 10]. A vector clock in a system of N processes is a vector of N integers. Each process maintains its own vector clock (Vi for a process Pi) to timestamp local events. Like Lamport timestamps, vector timestamps (the vector of N integers) are sent with each message. The rules for using vector clocks are: The vector is initialized to 0 at all processes: Vi[j] = 0 for i,j = 1, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, N Before a process Pi timestamps an event, it increments its element of the vector in its local vector: Vi[i] = Vi[i]+1 A message is sent from process Pi with Vi attached to the message. When a process Pj receives a vector timestamp t, it compares the two vectors element by element, setting its local vector clock to the higher of the two values: Vj[i] = max(Vj[i], t[i]) for i=1, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, N We compare two vector timestamps by defining: V = V iff V[j] = V'[j] for i=1, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, N V à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ V iff V[j] à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ V'[j] for i=1, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, N For any two events e, e, if eà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢e then V(e) < V(e). This is the same as we get from Lamports algorithm. With vector clocks, we now have the additional knowledge that if V(e)

The Disturbing Role of Television in Accidents and Deaths Involving Children :: Term Papers Research

The Disturbing Role of Television in Accidents and Deaths Involving Children Imagine being a mother or a father standing in the kitchen doing dishes when out of nowhere a familiar scream hits your ears. The first thing you do is ask yourself â€Å"Where are my kids?† The phone rings and your next-door neighbor informs you that he/she has called 911 and you should come right away. You slam down the phone and in a panic you run down your walk across the street, arriving just as the ambulance backs into the drive. Next thing you know your 11-year-old son Billy, broken and bleeding, is being sped to the hospital. Far-fetched, as this story may seem it is happening more and more everyday. Billy got hurt because he and his friends were re-enacting a move they had seen on WWF the night before. Does television really influence good kids to do bad things? The answer is yes depending on the type of program and its content. At a young age children absorb everything they see and hear including things that adults see as minor, or non-influential. Television can do several things, create ideas in a child’s mind, pacify physical energy that could be used productively, tell children that unacceptable behavior is ok, and that humans are invincible. All of these ideas are false and can lead to destructive behavior and circumstances, and in some cases death. â€Å"The statistical correlation between childhood exposure to violence in media and aggressive behavior is about the same as that between smoking and lung cancer† (Atkinson, Michael. 59) (put a period after the parenthetical citation, and only include the author’s last name and page number in parentheses) We all know that for anyone who smokes a great deal lung cancer is almost inevitable, this causes great concern because most children spend much of their spare time in front of the television or playing video games. (make more explicit the connection between the effects of smoking and the effects of watching too much TV) Many childhood accidents related to television are in the form of copycat crimes says Michael Atkinson in his article â€Å"The movies made me do it†, â€Å"Copycat crimes have attained front-burner notoriety, and some day soon Hollywood’s liberty will be pitted against the perceived welfare of American children† (58). Many chil dren’s cartoons such as â€Å"X Men† and â€Å"PokeMon† tend to be very violent and anger oriented, (semicolon) therefore when children copycat what they see often times they end up hurting themselves or someone else, possibly even causing death.

Catcher In The Rye :: essays research papers

Catcher in the rye Catcher in the Rye Holden and His "Phony" Family The protagonist, Holden Caulfield, interacts with many people throughout J.D. Salinger&#8217;s novel The Catcher in the Rye, but probably none have as much impact on him as certain members of his immediate family. The ways Holden acts around or reacts to the various members of his family give the reader a direct view of Holden&#8217;s philosophy surrounding each member. How do Holden&#8217;s different opinions of his family compare and do his views constitute enough merit to be deemed truth? Holden makes reference to the word "phony" forty-four separate times throughout the novel (Corbett 68-73). Each time he seems to be referring to the subject of this metaphor as -- someone who discriminates against others, is a hypocrite about something, or has manifestations of conformity (Corbett 71). Throughout The Catcher in the Rye, Holden describes and interacts with various members of his family. The way he talks about or to each gives you some idea of whether he thinks they are "phony" or normal. A few of his accounts make it more obvious than others to discover how he classifies each family member. From the very first page of the novel, Holden begins to refer to his parents as distant and generalizes both his father and mother frequently throughout his chronicle. One example is: "&#8230;my parents would have about two hemorrhages apiece if I told anything personal about them. They&#8217;re quite touchy about anything like that, especially my father. They&#8217;re nice and all &#8211; I&#8217;m not saying that &#8211; but they&#8217;re also touchy as hell" (Salinger 1). Holden&#8217;s father is a lawyer and therefore he considers him "phony" because he views his father&#8217;s occupation unswervingly as a parallel of his father&#8217;s personality. For example, when Holden is talking to Phoebe about what he wants to be when he grows up, he cannot answer her question and proceeds to give her his opinion about their father&#8217;s occupation.. &#8216;Lawyers are all right, I guess &#8211; but it doesn&#8217;t appeal to me,&#8217; I said. &#8216;I mean they&#8217;re all right if they go around saving innocent guys&#8217; lives all the time, and like that, but you don&#8217;t do that kind of stuff if you&#8217;re a lawyer. All you do is make a lot of dough and Catcher In The Rye :: essays research papers Catcher in the rye Catcher in the Rye Holden and His "Phony" Family The protagonist, Holden Caulfield, interacts with many people throughout J.D. Salinger&#8217;s novel The Catcher in the Rye, but probably none have as much impact on him as certain members of his immediate family. The ways Holden acts around or reacts to the various members of his family give the reader a direct view of Holden&#8217;s philosophy surrounding each member. How do Holden&#8217;s different opinions of his family compare and do his views constitute enough merit to be deemed truth? Holden makes reference to the word "phony" forty-four separate times throughout the novel (Corbett 68-73). Each time he seems to be referring to the subject of this metaphor as -- someone who discriminates against others, is a hypocrite about something, or has manifestations of conformity (Corbett 71). Throughout The Catcher in the Rye, Holden describes and interacts with various members of his family. The way he talks about or to each gives you some idea of whether he thinks they are "phony" or normal. A few of his accounts make it more obvious than others to discover how he classifies each family member. From the very first page of the novel, Holden begins to refer to his parents as distant and generalizes both his father and mother frequently throughout his chronicle. One example is: "&#8230;my parents would have about two hemorrhages apiece if I told anything personal about them. They&#8217;re quite touchy about anything like that, especially my father. They&#8217;re nice and all &#8211; I&#8217;m not saying that &#8211; but they&#8217;re also touchy as hell" (Salinger 1). Holden&#8217;s father is a lawyer and therefore he considers him "phony" because he views his father&#8217;s occupation unswervingly as a parallel of his father&#8217;s personality. For example, when Holden is talking to Phoebe about what he wants to be when he grows up, he cannot answer her question and proceeds to give her his opinion about their father&#8217;s occupation.. &#8216;Lawyers are all right, I guess &#8211; but it doesn&#8217;t appeal to me,&#8217; I said. &#8216;I mean they&#8217;re all right if they go around saving innocent guys&#8217; lives all the time, and like that, but you don&#8217;t do that kind of stuff if you&#8217;re a lawyer. All you do is make a lot of dough and

Essay --

â€Å"Ilmu pengetahuan tanpa nilai-nilai yang mulia belum tentu dapat melahirkan masyarakat yang baik dan berjaya. Nilai-nilai yang mulia tanpa ilmu pengetahuan juga tidak akan melahirkan masyarakat yang berjaya†. Begitulah ungkapan kata-kata bestari oleh mantan Perdana Menteri kita, Tun Dr. Mahathir bin Mohamad, Bapa Pemodenan Negara yang merupakan salah satu daripada pencetus kegemilangan dunia pendidikan negara. Selamat pagi dan Salam 1 Malaysia saya ucapkan kepada: Pengerusi Majlis, Yang Amat Berhormat Datuk Johan Ashaari bin Murti, Menteri Pendidikan merangkap Timbalan Perdana Menteri. Yang Berhormat Datuk Romario Ansam anak Rungah, Timbalan Menteri Pendidikan. Yang Amat Berhormat Pehin Sri Maher Zain, Ketua Menteri. Yang Berhormat Freddy Jabu anak Jugah, Timbalan Ketua Menteri. Yang Berhormat Datuk Halimah, Menteri Tugas-tugas Khas Dalam Negeri berkaitan Pendidikan. Yang Berhormat Datuk-datuk dan Datin-datin. Yang Berbahagia Datuk Ariffin Faiq, Ketua Pengarah Pendidikan. Yang Berbahagia Datuk Sabri bin Rahmat, Rektor IPGM. Yang Dihormati Encik Hafiz Azman, Pengarah Pendidikan Negeri. Yang Berusaha Puan Saftuyah binti Safri, Pengarah Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Pengarah-pengarah IPGK dan Wakil-wakil Pengarah IPGK. Yang Berusaha Encik Amir bin Jamal, Timbalan Pengarah Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Ketua-ketua Jabatan Persekutuan dan Negeri. Ketua-ketua Jabatan dan Ketua-ketua Unit Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Pensyarah-pensyarah Kanan. Para Pensyarah. Staf-staf Sokongan. Para Graduan. Para Ibu Bapa. Tuan-tuan dan Puan-puan dekat di hati. Tegak rumah kerana tiangnya, tegak bumi kerana paksinya, tegaknya saya di sini adalah untuk menyampaikan sebuah pidato yang bertajuk â€Å"Kecemerlan... ...unyai muhasabah diri, mereka mampu mencipta nama dan berjaya di peringkat global. Tuan-tuan dan puan-puan yang dihormati sekalian, Sedarkah anda bahawa percubaan dan uji kaji ribuan kali telah dilakukan oleh Thomas Adison untuk mencipta lampu yang dapat kita nikmati faedahnya sehingga ke hari ini? Tahukah anda bahawa Colonel Sandera telah bersusah payah siang dan malam untuk mencipta resepi rahsia KFC nya sehingga semua kita yang pada hari ini menjamahnya sehingga menjilat jari? Sikap sebeginilah yang wajar diambilkan sebagai contoh dan panduan sekiranya kita ingin betul-betul cemerlang dalam akademik bahkan kehidupan kita seharian. Antara rahsia kejayaan orang-orang yang hebat ini ialah kepatuhan kepada disiplin. Lihatlah wahai dunia bahawa orang-orang yang berdisiplin ini yang akan menggoncang dunia! Bak kata pepatah, â€Å"siapa yang menuai, dia akan dapat hasilnya†.

Fiscal Federalism in India Essay

India is the largest democracy with federal form of government. The fiscal arrangements in India have evolved in a quasi-federal system to meet the requirements of centralized planning in a mixed economy structure and their sources of revenue for both Centre and State were clearly demarcated with regard to the financial relationship and the responsibilities between them. Our constitution provides residual powers to the Centre and makes clear division of fiscal powers between the Centre and the State Governments. Through various source of revenue to government, the Constitution of India provides for the establishment of a Finance Commission for the purpose of allocation of certain resources of revenue between the Union and the State Governments. The Finance Commission is established under Article 280 of the Constitution of India by the President. The Article 264 and 293 explain the financial relations between the Union and the State Government. Although the states have been assigned certain taxes which are levied and collected by them, they also share in the revenue of certain union taxes and there are certain other taxes which are levied and collected by the Central Government but whole proceeds are transferred to the states. In India, the Centre-State financial relationship relates to the distribution of power in resource mobilization between the Centre and States as also the sharing of expenditure responsibilities. During the last decade the disparities widened among the States which became economically and politically important. This situation resulted due to globalization and privatization by which certain States enjoy great advantages over the other. The most important and buoyant revenue sources are assigned to the Union Government, while major expenditure responsibilities rest with the State government, which take care of the social and economic sectors. Hence, in the federal structure, there is the possibility of conflicts in sharing the revenue and expenditure of both the governments. While the State governments in India collects about one-third of the total tax revenue accruing to the government sector, their expenditure obligations are disproportionately high, accounting for three fourths of the aggregate social expenditure and more than one-half of the aggregate expenditure on economic services. To enable the States to carry out their expenditure respective responsibilities, the Finance Commission is assigned with the task of recommending the transfer of resources from the  Centre to the States. Fiscal imbalance Viz., vertical or horizontal fiscal imbalance appears very often in the countries with decentralized fiscal systems. Removal of these fiscal imbalances of the States by optimizing social welfare of the economy is to remove the fiscal balance in the inter-government transfers from the Centre by finance commission entrusted in equalization of transfers of funds according to the economic requirement irrespective of the political parties ruling. The real challenge of any federation is to eliminate intra-regional vertical and horizontal fiscal inequalities. This paper analyzes these aspects of vertical and horizontal fiscal imbalance in federal India and the way out to the problem to development path. 1. FISCAL FEDERALISM: As a subfield of public economics, fiscal federalism is concerned with â€Å"understanding which functions and instruments are best centralized and which is best placed in the sphere of decentralized levels of government† (Oates, 1999). In other words, it is the study of how competencies (expenditure side) and fiscal instruments (revenue side) are allocated across different (vertical) layers of the administration. An important part of its subject matter is the system of transfer payments or grants by which a central government shares its revenues with lower levels of government. As originally defined by Musgrave (1959) and Oats (l972), â€Å"fiscal federalism† concerns the division of public sector functions and finances among different tiers of government. 1.2 INTRODUCTION TO FISCAL FEDERALISM IN INDIA: India has a federal form of government, and hence a federal finance system. The essence of federal form of government is that the Centre and the State Governments should be independent of each provided with sources of raising adequate revenues to discharge the functions entrusted to it. For the successful operation of the federal form of government financial independence and adequacy form the backbone. India possesses a federal structure with a clear distinction between the Centre and the State’s functions. India is the largest democracy with federal form of government. The fiscal arrangements in India have evolved in a quasi-federal system to  meet the requirements of centralized planning in a mixed economy framework. The founding fathers of our Indian Constitution were deeply concerned about ensuring the unity and integrity of the country. They were aware of the forces of disruption and disunity working within the country. The dangers at the time of independence were handl ed by a strong government at the Centre. 1.3 HISTORY OF FISCAL FEDERALISM Indian federal system is about sixty years old, compared to more than two centuries of the United States or Switzerland or Canada. The federal character of public finance in India has its origin as far as the seventies of the last century. Although at that time the country had a unitary form of government, some division of functions and financial powers between the Center and the state was found administratively desirable. Ever since then the arrangements have been revised and improved from time to time. Fiscal federalism entails the division of responsibilities in respect of taxation and public expenditure among the different layers of the government, namely the Center, the states and the local bodies. 1.4 OBJECTIVE OF FISCAL FEDERALISM Fiscal federalism helps governmental organization to realize cost efficiency by economies of scale in providing public services, which corresponds most closely to the preference of the people. From the point of view of economy, it creates a unified common market, which promotes greater economic activity. The federal system has served extremely well for India to promote their democracy, to strengthen the national unity and to achieve economic progress to the nation completely. 1.5 REASON OF FISCAL FEDERALISM IN INDIA: Fiscal structure provides balanced sources of revenue and expenditure .Fiscal challenges of vertical and horizontal imbalances play an important role to balance the fiscal condition between the steels. To overcome the fiscal redressed our Constitution has created an institution called the Finance Commission, which is an independent Constitutional body, appointed after every five years. 2 LEGISLATIVE LIST The Seventh Schedule (Article 246) delineates ‘the subject matter of laws made by the Parliament and by the Legislatures of the states’ and indicates the * Union List (List I) * states List (List II) * Concurrent List (List III). 2.1 UNION LIST: List I invests the union with all functions of national importance such as defense, external affairs, communications, constitution, organization of the Supreme Court and the high courts, elections etc. 2.2 STATES LIST: List II invests the states with a number of important functions touching on the life and welfare of the people such as public order, police, local government, public health, agriculture, land etc. 2.3 CONCURRENT LIST: List III is a concurrent List, which includes administration of justice, economic and social planning, trade and commerce, etc. 2.4 IMPORTANCE OF LEGISLATIVE LISTS: According to Article 246, Seventh Schedule, Parliament has exclusive powers to make laws regarding matters enumerated in List I, notwithstanding the provisions of the other clauses of this Article. On the other hand, the Legislature of any state has exclusive power to make laws for the state regarding any of the matters enumerated in List II, subject to other clauses. With regard to List III, both the Parliament and a State Legislature can make laws but the law listed in I or III, vests with the Union. Thus, the Union has supremacy over a wide range of the legislative field. These lists include the powers of taxation also. The union List includes among others, taxes on income other than agricultural income, excise duties, customs and corporation tax. The State list includes land revenue, excise on Alcoholic liquors, tax on agricultural incomes, estate duty, taxes on sale or purchase of goods, taxes on vehicles, on professions, on luxuries, on entertainment, on stamp duties, etc. the concurrent list does not include any important taxes. 3 FINANCE COMMISSION OF INDIA: The Finance Commission of India came into existence in 1951. It was established under Article 280 of the Indian Constitution by the President of  India. It was formed to define the financial relations between the centre and the state. The Finance Commission Act of 1951 states the terms of qualification, appointment and disqualification, the term, eligibility and powers of the Finance Commission. As per the Constitution, the commission is appointed every five years and consists of a chairman and four other members. Since the institution of the first finance commission, stark changes have occurred in the Indian economy causing changes in the macroeconomic scenario. This has led to major changes in the Finance Commission’s recommendations over the years. Till date, Thirteen Finance Commissions have submitted their reports. 3.1 FUNCTIONS OF FINANCE COMMISSION: Functions of the Finance Commission can be explicitly stated as: * Distribution of net proceeds of taxes between Centre and the States, to be divided as per their respective contributions to the taxes. * Determine factors governing Grants-in Aid to the states and the magnitude of the same. * Work with the State Finance Commissions and suggest measures to augment the Consolidated Fund of the States so as to provide additional resources to Panchayats and Municipalities in the state. 3.2 Procedures and Powers of the Commission The Commission has the power determine their own procedure and: * Have all powers of the civil court as per the Court of Civil Procedure, 1908. * Can summon and enforce the attendance of any witness or ask any person to deliver information or produce a document, which it deems relevant. * Can ask for the production of any public record or document from any court or office. * Shall be deemed to be a civil court for purposes of Sections 480 and 482 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898. 3.3 CONSTITUITIONAL POSITION OF FINANCE COMMISSION: According to the article 280 of the constitution finance commission is established to distribute the revenues between the states and center and among the states. Article 280 finance commission: 1. The president shall within two years from the commencement of this constitution and thereafter at the expiration of every fifth year or at such  earlier time as the president considers necessary, by order constitute a finance commission which shall consist of a chairman and four other members to be appointed by the president. 2. Parliament may b law determine the qualification which shall be requisite for appointment as members of the commission and the manner in which they shall be selected. 3. It shall be the duty of the commission to make recommendations to the president as to a. The distribution between the union and the states of the net proceeds of taxes which are to be, or may be, divided between them under this chapter and the allocation between the states of the respective shares of such proceeds†¦. 3.4 THERTEEN FINANCE COMMISSIONS OF INDIA: 3.4.1 First Finance Commission: The First Finance Commission was appointed by the President on November 20, 1951, which was chaired by Mr. K.C. Neogy. Other members of the commission included Mr. V.P. Menon, Mr. R. Kaushalendra Rao, Dr. BK Madan and Mr. M.U. Rangachari. After Mr. V.P. Menon’s resignation on February 18, 1952, Mr. V.L. Mehta was appointed as a member. The commission was asked to make recommendations regarding: Recommendations * Allocations of income tax and Union Excise Duties and tax sharing. * Amounts payable as Grants- in-Aid to the States in need of Assistance under the ‘substantive portion of Clause 1 of Article275’. * Grants-in-Aid to certain States in lieu of their share of export duty on jute and jute products according to Article 273 # Continuation or adjustment of the terms of agreement with Part B States under Article 278 (1) or under Article 306. Vertical distribution: * The share of States in the proceeds of income tax was to be 55 per cent. * The share of centre was 45%. * The First Commission recommended that shares of States in the Union excise duties be 40 per cent of the proceeds of the tax on three commodities, 25 per cent of the proceeds of the tax on eight commodities and 20 per cent of the proceeds of the tax on 35 commodities, respectively. Horizontal distribution: As far as Horizontal Distribution is concerned, following formula was followed for revenue distribution among the states: Distribution formula: * Population 80%. * Residual weight age of 20% given to contribution. No recommendations regarding grants for meeting capital requirements of the state were made by the commission. The Commission provided Grants in- Aid (under Article 273) to only four states, namely, Assam Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. However, Grants were provided to many states under Substantive Portion of Article 275 (1) and under the head of Primary education grants. 3.4.2 Second Finance Commission: The Second Finance Commission was constituted by President Rajendra Prasad, on June 1, 1956. The Commission was chaired by Shri K. Santhanam and consisted of Shri Ujjal Singh, Shri L.S. Misra (Retired Chief Justice, Hyderabad), Shri M.V. Rangachari and Dr. B.N. Ganguli, as its other members.The Commission was asked to make the following recommendations: RECOMMENDATIONS * Grants-in-Aid to certain States, in need of assistance under Article 275, having regard to the requirements of Second Five Year Plan and the efforts made by those states to raise additional revenue. * Allocation of Estate Duty and Tax on Railway Passenger Fares proposed to be levied by the Railway Passenger Fares Bill, 1957, introduced in the Lok Sabha on 15 May 1957. * Grants-in-Aid to the States of Assam, Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal, to compensate for their share of the export duty on jute and jute products as per Article 273. * The principles which should govern the distribution under article 269 of the net proceeds of estate duty in respect of property other than agricultural land, levied by the Government of India in the States within which such duty is leviable. * Revisions, if any, of the rates of interest on loans made by the Centre to the States between August 15, 1947 to March 31, 1956 and their terms of repayment. The phenomenal growth of the Union loans to the States justified such adjustments. * Apportionments of the net proceeds of the additional Excise Duties proposed to be levied in view of States’ Sales Taxes on the mill made textiles, sugar and tobacco, and the amounts which should be assured to the States as the income now derived by them from the levy on these commodities and the States Sales Tax (which is to be replaced by the additional duty of excise). vertical distribution: Despite the receding contribution by the Income Tax to the devolution of revenue to the States, the Commission recommended an increase in the per cent of the net proceeds to the States from 55 to 60, and the share of the Union Territories should be 1 per cent. Share of centre was 40% to 45%. Horizontal distribution: It was recommended that the distribution of the share of Income tax among the States should be 10 per cent on the basis of collection and 90 per cent of the basis of population, thereby giving greater importance to population than it was earlier. As far as the allocation to the States from the Union duties of excise on matches, tobacco, vegetable products, tea, coffee, sugar, paper and vegetable non-essential oils was concerned, the Commission considered that it should be 25 per cent. 3.4.3 The Third Finance Commission: The Third Finance Commission was appointed in the year 1960, for the period 1960-64, by the President and was chaired by Shri A.K. Chanda and the its members were :- Shri Govinda Menon, Shri Dwijendra Nath Roy, Prof. M.V. Mathur, Shri G.R. Kamat, Member Secretary. The Commission was asked to make recommendations to the President with regard to the following:- * On account of Tax sharing between the Centre and the State and allocation of Income Tax and Central Excise Duties. * Under Article 275, Grants-in-Aid to States in need of assistance, other than the sums specified in the provisos to Clause of article 275 a) With regard to the requirements of third five-year plan b) Secondly, with regard to the efforts to be made by those states to raise additional revenue amount . * Allocation of duties, namely, additional excise duty and estate duty. * The manner of distribution of adhoc Grants in-lieu of tax on Railway Passenger Fares With regard to the TOR the following were the recommendations made by the FC:- The Finance Commission recommended the formulation of an independent commission to assess the tax potential of each state. horizontal distribution: Income Tax With regard to the divisible pool of income tax among the states the FC adopted the criterion of the first FC that 80% be distributed on the basis of population and 20% on the basis of collection. The recommended percentage share of the states in divisible pool of the Income Tax: Maharashtra – 13.41, Bihar – 9.33, Punjab – 4.49, Uttar Pradesh – 14.12, Kerala – 3.55 Union Excise Duty With regard to the distribution of the proceeds of UED the FC decided to cover all commodities on the existing list. It recommended that 20% of the net proceeds of UED on all commodities on which such duties were collected and the yield of which exceeded Rs. 50 lakhs in1960-61 should be allocated to the state. Vertical distribution: Commission recommended an increase in the per cent of the net proceeds to the States from 60% top 75%.share of centre was reduced to 35% to 40%. revenue distribution formula: The share of each state in the distribution of UED was determined by the Commission on the basis of population and it rejected consumption as the basis of distribution due to two major reasons; A. Reliable data on consumption wasn’t available. B. As it would have given advantage to the more urbanized and financially stronger states. Percentage share of the 20% of proceeds of the UED for certain major states were:- Maharashtra – 5.73, Bihar – 11.56, Punjab – 6.71, Uttar Pradesh – 10.68, Kerala – 5.46 Additional Duties of Excise The GOI in consultation with the state governments, decided that an AED be levied on mill-made textiles, sugar, tobacco, rayon among others and the net proceeds of which should be distributed among them subject to then income derived by each state being assured to it. The Commission rejected this contention as the rates of sales taxes had been revised by them since then. The commission distributed the guaranteed amount of Rs. 32.54 crores among the States and the remaining amount was distributed, first, on the basis of the percentage increase in the collection of sales tax in each state since 1957- 58 when AED were imposed and then on the basis of the population. The Act imposing a tax on the railway passenger fares was repealed after the Third Finance Commission had been constituted. Hence, the commission was asked to make recommendations on the principle on which the ad hoc grant should be distributed among the states. The commission adopted the principle of compensation based on which the grants should be distributed. 3.4.4 The Fourth Finance Commission of India: The Fourth Finance Commission was constituted on May 18, 1964, under the chairmanship of Dr. P.V. Rajamannar. Other members of the Commission included Shri Mohan Lal Gautam Shri D.G. Karve Prof. Bhabatosh Datta Shri P.C. Mathew, Member Secretary. The Commission suggested in its report that there should be greater co-ordination between the Centre and the States in common financial interests for which it recommended the establishment of a permanent organization in the Ministry of Finance. Recommendations Horizontal and vertical distributions were similar to the third finance commission. The changes to be made in the principles governing the  distribution of the net proceeds in any financial year of the additional excise duties levied on commodities, namely, cotton fabrics, silk fabrics, woolen fabrics, sugar and tobacco- in replacement in the States’ tax formerly levied by the state governments. 3.4.5 The Fifth Finance Commission of India: The Fifth Finance Commission was constituted by the President of India on March 15, 1968. The Terms of Reference of the Fifth Finance Commission were wider than those of the earlier ones. Apart from the matters referred to in the earlier Commissions, this Commission was required to: * Examine the desirability or otherwise of maintaining the existing arrangements in regard to additional excise duties levied in lieu of Sales Tax and the scope for extension of such arrangements to other items. * To inquire into the unauthorized overdrafts of the States and recommend the procedure for avoiding such overdrafts. * Examine the scope for raising revenue from taxes and duties mentioned in Article 269, the scope for States in raising additional revenue from their sources as well their scope for better fiscal management and economy in expenditure, and make a comprehensive study of the States’ expenditure on various subjects. * Grants-in-aid recommended under Article 275 (1) are to be for purposes ‘other than the requirements of the Five Year Plan’, and while making its recommendations, the Commission was called upon to have regard to â€Å"the resources of the Central Government and the demands thereon† on account of expenditure on civil administration, defense, debt servicing, etc. * The Commission was asked for the first time to indicate the basis of its findings and make available relevant information. Since then these were made clear in the Terms of Reference of every successive Finance Commission. 3.4.6 The Sixth Finance Commission of India: The Sixth Finance Commission was incorporated in the year 1973 consisting of Shri K. Brahmananda Reddi as the chairman and the following four other Members, namely:-Shri Justice Syed Sadat Abal Masud, Dr. B.S. Minhas, dr. I.S. Gulati, Shri G. Ramachandran, Member Secretary. Recommendations The States demanded the inclusion of corporation tax into the divisible  income tax and 1005 allocation of the net proceeds to them. The commission expressed that such inclusion was constitutionally forbidden but it can be reviewed by National Development Council. vertical distribution: States share was increase from 75% to 80% due to the decrease in the divisible pool as the arrears of the advance tax collection had been cleared. Share of centre was reduced to 25% to 30%. 3.4.7 The Seventh Finance Commission of India: Introduction The Seventh Finance Commission was incorporated in the year 1978 consisting of Shri J.M. Shelat as the chairman and the following four other Members, namely:-Dr. Raj Krishna Dr. C.H. Hanumantha Rao Shri H.N. Ray Shri V.B. Eswaran, Member Secretary. Vertical distribution: The share of the states in the net proceeds should be raised to 85% excepting the share of the Union Territories which would be 2.19% of net proceeds. Share of centre was reduced to 15%. Horizontal distribution: The inter distribution between the states should include 10% contribution factor and rest 90% would be on basis of population. 3.4.8 Eighth Finance Commission of India: The Eighth Finance Commission was constituted by the President of India, on April 28, 1984 under the chairmanship of Shri Y.B. Chavan. The commission also consisted of the following members Shri Justice Sabya Sachi Mukherjee Dr. C.H. Hanumantha Rao Shri G.C. Baveja Shri A.R. Shirali Shri Justice T.P.S. Chawla Shri N.V. Krishnan, Secretary. It was asked to make recommendations on: * The distribution of net proceeds of taxes between the union and the states which are to be or may be divided between them under chapter 1 of Part XII of the constitution and allocation between the states of the respective shares of the same The principles which govern the grants in aid of the revenues of the states out of the Consolidated Fund of India and the amount to be paid to the needy States which seeks assistance by way of grants in aid of their revenues under Article 275 of the constitution for purposes other than those specified in the provisions to  clause (i) of that article. * The commission is to examine the possibility for increasing revenue from the taxes and duties mentioned in article 269 of the constitution but which are not levied at present. It will probe into the scope for enhancing revenue from the duties mentioned in the article 268. Making an assessment of the non plan capital gap of the states on a uniform and comparable basis for the 5 years ending with 1988-89 also comes under its agenda. It will review the policy and arrangement in regards to the financing of relief expenditure by the States affected by natural calamities and make appropriate suggestions. The commission shall make its report by October 31, 1986 on each of the matters aforesaid. The major objective of the Eighth Finance Commission was to reduce interstate disparities through their scheme of devolution. 3.4.9 The Ninth Finance Commission of India: The Ninth Finance Commission was set up in June 1987 under the chairmanship of Mr. N.K.P Salve along with the following members Shri Justice Abdus Sattar Qureshi Dr. Raja J. Chelliah Shri Lal Thanhawla Shri Mahesh Prasad Shri S. Venkitaramanan Shri Venkitaramanan Shri R. Keishing Shri K.V.R. Nair. The commission has been asked to adopt a normative approach in assessing the receipts and the expenditures on the revenue account not only of the states but also of the centre with due regard to the special problems of each state and the special requirement of the centre. Generating surpluses on revenue account of both the states and centre for capital investment should also be considered. Changes in the principles that govern the distribution between the union and the states and also the states inter se of the net proceeds of central taxes are to be made. The commission will also make recommendations regarding the principles which should govern the grants in aid of the revenue of the state out of the Consolidated Fund of India. It is to assess the debt position of the states as on March 31, 1989 and suggest corrective measures. In regard to the financing of the relief expenditure by the states affected by natural calamities the commission is to examine the feasibility of establishing a National Insurance Fund to which the state governments may contribute a percentage of their revenue receipts. The government’s decision to accept all the major recommendations of this commission which would bring substantial benefits to the state  during the eighth five-year plan period (especially in relation to debt relief) shows the upper hand enjoyed by this body. 3.4.10 The Tenth Finance Commission of India: The Tenth Finance Commission was incorporated in the year 1995 consisting of Shri Krishna Chandra Pant as the Chairman and the following four other Members, namely Dr. Debi Prosad Pal, Member of Parliament, Member Shri B.P.R. Vithal, Member Dr. C. Rangarajan, Member Shri M.C. Gupta, Member Secretary. Recommendations The share of the Union Territories would not be determined on the grounds used for state share but it would be decided on the basis of population solely. The percentage would be 0.927% for the years 1995-2000. The proceeds from the ‘penalties’ and ‘interest recovered’ under the miscellaneous receipts should be included in to the divisible income tax pool as recommended by Ninth commission with effect from 1 April 1995. Vertical distribution: The share of the net proceeds would be 77.5% for five years was given to states and 23.5% share was given to centre. HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUITION: Distribution of the net proceeds among states would be as follows:- * 20% on the basis of population of 1971 * 60% on basis of distance of per capita income * 5% on basis of area adjusted * 5% on basis of infrastructure index * 10% on basis of tax effort 3.4.11 The Eleventh Finance Commission of India: The Eleventh Finance Commission was appointed by the President on July 3, 1998 for the period 2000-05.It was chaired by : Prof. A.M. Khusro and its members were Shri N.C Jain, Shri J.C Jetly, Dr. Amaresh Bagchi, Shri T.N. Srivastava The Commission was asked to make recommendations to the President with regard to the following:- * With regard to Chapter I of Part XII of the Constitution, the distribution between the Centre and the States of the net proceeds of taxes and the allocation between the States of the shares of  these proceeds. * The principles governing the grants-in-aid of the revenues of the States out of the Consolidated Fund of India and with regard to article 275- the sums to be paid to the States which are in need of assistance by way of grants-in-aid of their revenues for purposes other than those specified in the provisos to clause (1) of that article. * With regard to the recommendations made by the Finance Commission of the State; the measures needed to augment the Consolidated Fund of a State to supplement the resources of the Panchayats and Municipalities in the State. * Suggestions for a restructuring of the public finances so as to restore budgetary balance and maintain macro-economic stability. Vertical distribution: The total share of the States in the net proceeds of central taxes and duties would be 29.5 per cent for the next five years. Share of the centre was 71.5%. 3.4.12 The Twelfth Finance Commission of India The Twelfth Finance Commission was appointed on 1 November 2002 to make recommendations on the distribution of net proceeds of sharable taxes between union and states. The commission was headed by veteran economist of India, C. Rangarajan. The commission submitted its report on 30 November 2004 and covered the period from 2005 to 2010. Major Recommendations of 12th Finance Commission * Macro-economic stability The total Fiscal Deficit for Centre & states to be reduced to 3% of GDP. The total tax-GDP ratio of both centre& states to be increased to 17.6% of GDP in 2009-10. The revenue deficit for the centre& states combined to be reduced to 0% by 2008. * Distribution of Union Tax The total share of states in the total sharable central taxes to be fixed at 30.5% and the share of states will come down to 29.5% if the states levy sales tax on sugar, textiles & tobacco. * Grants to local bodies The total grant that will have to given to the states for panchayati raj institutions and local urban bodies for the period of 2005-09 will be Rs  20000 crores& Rs 5000 crores respectively. * Calamity Relief Fund The calamity relief fund scheme will continue as it was in the previous plans with central & states contributing in the ratio of 75: 25. The size of fund will be Rs 21333 crore for the period of 2005-10.. 3.4.13 thirteenth Finance Commission: 1. The share of states in the net proceeds of the shareable Central taxes should be 32%.This is 1.5% higher than the recommendation of 12th Finance Commission. 2. Revenue deficit to be progressively reduced and eliminated, followed by revenue surplus by 2013-14. 3. Fiscal deficit to be reduced to 3% of the GDP by 2014-15. 4. A target of 68% of GDP for the combined debt of centre and states. 5. The Medium Term Fiscal Plan(MTFP)should be reformed and made the statement of commitment rather than a statement of intent. 6. FRBM Act need to be amended to mention the nature of shocks which shall require targets relaxation. 7. Both centre and states should conclude ‘Grand Bargain’ to implement the model Goods and Services Act(GST).To incentivise the states, the commission recommended a sanction of the grant of Rs 50000 crore. 8. Initiatives to reduce the number of Central Sponsored Schemes(CSS)and to restore the predominance of formula based plan grants. 9. States need to address the problem of losses in the power sector in time bound manner. 3.5 CURRENT REVENUE SHAIRING FORMULA: The scope of the FCs broadened over time as they were assigned several other issues on government finances, particularly those relating to augmentation of State Consolidation Funds to supplementing the resources of local bodies and debt-related issues. The approach of successive FCs varied as they addressed concerns raised by States from time to time regarding the composition of the divisible pool of central taxes and inter se distribution criteria. Recent constitutional changes have simplified the sharing arrangement of the divisible pool of Central taxes by clubbing all shareable Central taxes and excise duties. While determining the formula for horizontal distribution of inter se shares of States, various FCs attempted to correct the differentials in revenue capacity and cost disability factors  inherent in the economies of States, while trying to foster fiscal efficiency at the State level. However, differences have been noticed in selection, definition and weight of variables that have been used by FCs to prescribe the devolution formula for Central taxes. More recently, the Thirteenth FC has placed greater emphasis on fiscal capacity distance and fiscal discipline, which is expected to facilitate greater convergence among the States. The pattern of transfers through the FC channel shows that the share in Central taxes has persistently been the predominant component of revenue sharing since the First FC. As far as the extent of equalization is concerned, an analysis of transfers as recommended by four successive FCs (from the Tenth to the Thirteenth) shows that it was the highest in the case of the Eleventh FC as the gap between recommended and benchmark transfers was minimum. Fiscal distance index is aimed at equalizing amongst the states the resource envelope for supplies of public services, while the fiscal efforts index is to minimize the â€Å"moral hazard† in such equalization payouts by incentivizing the tax efforts of the states. Area and population are indicative of the fiscal needs of the states. Such an institutional arrangement has served the country well. The reports of all past twelve Finance Commissions were unanimously accepted by the Parliament and the country The horizontal distribution is considered with certain basic formula, where the formula is based on objective and transparent parameters. The preferred parameters are: * area * population * fiscal efforts index * Fiscal distance index